7 Tips to Getting Over Your Fears Before Getting Your Private Pilot License

By Cris Cato

We all have fears. Some of us won't even admit to them, but we have them. Embarking on anything new, while being very exciting, can also be very scary. The reason, the main reason...fear of failure. You need to get over your fears not only of flying, if you have one. but of failing as well before you can be the proud owner of a private pilot license.

If you've taken a driver's test and didn't pass the first time, you remember what that was like when the instructor turned to you and said, "Sorry, you failed." If you looked up the word "down" in the dictionary, you would have seen a photo of yourself right next to the definition.
Nobody likes to fail, and fear of failure is one of the worst fears in the world.

Okay, great... now that we've established that... how do we deal with it?

Here are a few great ways of overcoming the fear of failure.

1. Consider The Missed Opportunity.
Imagine that you decide that you're too afraid to go through with learning how to fly and taking your exam. Now imagine what life is going to be like without being able to do this very thing that you love so much. I'm assuming that if you want to learn how to fly, there is a big reason for it. Focus on that instead of the fear and this will go a long way to alleviating that fear.

2. Research The Alternatives
Imagine what you will have to do without your PPL. You'll have to rely on commercial airlines. You won't be able to go where you want to go WHEN you want to go there. You'll be at the mercy of others. The alternatives to flying your own plane, if you don't want to rely on commercial airlines, are driving, train, bus and even boat. If that thought makes you sick to your stomach, focus on it. That'll get you over your fear of failure.

3. Put The Worst Case Scenario Into Perspective
Let's say you fail your PPL exam? What's the worst thing that can happen? They can't tell you that you can't take it again. You can still take another shot at it. It's not like this is a one time offer. If that were the case, there would be a ton of people not driving or flying planes. It's not the end of the world if you fail. At worse, you have to wait a little longer to get your PPL.

4. Understand The Benefits Of Failure
Believe it or not, you learn something from failure. You learn what it is you did wrong and get a chance to improve it. Would you rather that you didn't fail your exam only because some instructor took pity on you and ended up getting yourself killed because you really weren't ready to fly? I think you know the answer to that.

5. Make A Contingency Plan
If you do fail, have a plan. You should already be planning in advance on taking more lessons, getting more flight time and rescheduling. Failing doesn't mean that you give up.

6. Take Action
The best way to get rid of that fear is to just go ahead and do it. The more you procrastinate, the more afraid you're going to become until you reach a point where you're unable to take your exam at all.

7. Burn Your Boats
In ancient times, Greeks would burn their boats so that they had no choice but to move forward. They couldn't turn back. I don't know what you have to do in order to burn YOUR boat but do it. If that means picking up the phone and scheduling your exam, do it. Don't look back.

Hopefully, the 7 items I've gone over will help you get over your fears of getting your private pilot license

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Cris Cato is an avid fan of aviation. If you are ready to pursue your very own private pilot license, head on over to my site for a special software that will help you prepare for the private pilot exam.
http://www.squidoo.com/Get-Your-Private-Pilot-License

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How to Work Out a Cross Wind Component in Seconds When on Final Approach to Land

By Chris Puddy

When coming in to land it is often difficult to work out the cross wind component quickly. There are 2 quick methods I know to be able to do this and when you understand them choose the one that suits you best.

The first one is known as the clock code and with it you assume that any wind that is more than 60 degrees off the runway heading is a full strength cross wind. So if landing on say runway 27 which is 270 degrees from North, then if the wind direction is less than 210 or more than 330 degrees, whatever the strength is it is regarded as full cross wind. So if the wind is say 200 at 15 knots then it is a 15 knots cross wind.

Now to work out how much of a cross wind there is between these 60 degrees either side of the runway heading you imagine that the number of degrees off the heading are the numbers of minutes round a clock face. Then imagine how far round the clock face that is, and that proportion round the clock face is the proportion of the wind strength.

So if the wind is 20 degrees off the heading, say for example 290 at 30 knots, then 20 minutes is one third of the way round the clock face, so the cross wind component is one third of 30 knots which is 10 knots.

If the runway was 03 which is 030 degrees, and the wind was 070 at 20 knots, this is 40 degrees off, and 40 minutes round the clock face is nearly nearly three quarters of the way round the clock face so the cross wind is three quarters of 20 or 15 knots.

As wind constantly varies in strength and direction, then you do not need to be highly accurate with your calculation. If the wind is roughly 30 degrees off, it is half strength so roughly half the wind strength is the cross wind component. 45 degrees off is 3/4 of the strength of the wind and 60 degrees or more full strength.

Another easy way to work out cross wind and head wind component is using this simple mathematical formula.

For calculating cross wind. If the wind it 30 degrees off the nose it is.5 the wind strength, 45 degrees off.7 the wind strength, 60 degrees off it is.9 the wind strength, and if 90 degrees of then obviously it is full strength. This applies on cross country flights, or for working out the cross wind when coming in to land.

If for example when coming in to land the wind is 60 degrees off the runway heading it is.9 times the wind strength, so using simple arithmatic on a 20 knot wind just multiply 9 by 2 which is 18 knots. For a wind of 30 knots and 45 degrees off the runway heading the calculation is 3 X 7 which is 21 cross wind component. If like me you learned your multipliction tables as a child, this is easy.

If you reverse the formula, you can use it to work out head wind or tail wind component as well. So if the wind is directly towards you, it is full strength, if 30 degrees off it is.9 of full strength, 45 degrees off.7 of full strength, and 60 degrees off it will be half strength.

If it is 90 degrees off then there is no head or tail wind component. However bear in mind that any strong wind will be affecting the aircraft by drifting and turning into wind will in effect mean that you have to fly a longer track than a straight line so it will slow you down a little bit.

If the wind is coming from behind you, then the same proportions can be applied to work out the tail wind component, so if it is 30 degrees off your tail, it is.9 of the strength of the wind and so on.

For working out a diversion, you can apply this percentage to your airspeed to get the groundspeed, and then to work out drift interpolate the following formula as well. The formula is that at 120 knots airspeed, half the cross wind component is drift. So if you are flying at 90 knots then your drift would be 25% more than half the drift.

This method can be used to quickly calculate heading and groundspeed if a diversion is necessary, or if you want to check your calculations after using a computer to plan your journey.


Chris Puddy has been flying since 1965 and had had a variety of flying since then, mostly on light aircraft, and much of it single crew with no autopilot with many landings. He also has over 2500 hours instructing, and his varied experience is a huge benefit to his students especially as much of his flying was single crew without an autopilot.


Chris is CFI of the Cotswold Flying School at Kemble in the UK.


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11 Proven Study Techniques to Become a Better Pilot

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By Amir Fleminger

Chair flying. Flight training involves learning new motor skills. You would do much better in the air if you learn those skills in a relaxed and safe environment, while on the ground. Airline pilots spend hours practicing procedures in a "procedure trainer" (a non-functional mockup of the cockpit) before they step into an expensive level-D flight simulator or into the actual aircraft. That way, they already know what to do. "Chair flying" is simply the act of pretending to fly the aircraft while seating in a relaxed environment. You can practice chair flying in a procedure trainer, in front of a cockpit poster, in a parking aircraft, or on your couch at home. Any of those locations work. Be sure to practice every procedure in your normal, abnormal, and emergency checklists. Reach with your hands to the approximate position of each switch, lever or knob required for the procedure in order to build "muscle memory".

Flash cards. Learning the huge amount of details for training can be very challenging. System descriptions, Aircraft limitations, regulations, SOPs, memory items are all required to be retained in your memory and put in use immediately when time calls. You can make flash cards to help you remember those items. Buy a pack of index cards from any office supply store. On one side of a card write a question such as: "what is the maximum takeoff weight?"; on the other side write the answer: "Normal cat. 2550 lbs. Utility cat. 2200 lbs." (for a c-172S). Make as many cards as you need to cover all subjects including: regulations, system descriptions, memory items, and aircraft limitations. Once you have a large pile of cards start using them. Read a question and try to answer it, then flip the card to see if your answer was right. Put aside all the cards that you answered right and keep reading through the ones you got wrong, until you answer all of them correctly.

Learn the "cockpit songs" for your aircraft. Sometimes you can be familiar with a procedure but still have difficulty performing it in a steady pace while flying. The reason is that your thoughts of "what to do next" are slowing you down. Practice procedures verbally, so when you later perform them in the air, you won't stumble. For example, recovery from a low nose attitude would be "reduce power, level the wings, slowly pitch up". By practicing this procedure verbally while "chair flying" you could easily recall it when needed in a checkride or even better, in an actual unusual attitude encountered in flight. You can take any procedure and build a verbal action list in this way.

Analyze "what if" scenarios. One very important (if not the most important) characteristic of safe pilots is the ability to make good and timely decisions. Luckily, this trait could be practiced and improved. Before, during, and after each flight consider "what if scenarios". WHAT IF the weather moves in over my destination while enroute? Where would I divert? Would I have enough fuel to go there? Or WHAT IF I have an engine failure on the takeoff roll? WHAT IF it happens immediately after takeoff? What would I do? You get the drift.

Take advantage of Group study. Studying with other people can boost your understanding of the material and help you gain new insights.
Highlight with a marker essential ideas in textbooks while reading them.
Use mnemonics and acronyms to aid memory retention. "Black square, you're there!" John and Martha King [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SY0GxKRDBmk]repeat, referring to airport location signs. Although mnemonics often sound goofy, they can be very effective in helping you remember things better.

Visualization. Mental rehearsal helps us improve our skills and correct errors. Visualize each maneuver while on the ground prior to your flight lessons. This is a technique used by many pro-athletes to improve their game. You can use it to improve your flying skills.

Ask many questions.

Study the Practical Test Requirements for your rating or certificate level. After all, you have to know what's expected from you on the checkride so you won't be surprised.
Use a PC-based flight simulator or PCATD. Despite their many limitations, PC simulators provide you with free practice time. Although it cannot replace real practice time, it is still very valuable.

Amir Fleminger is a FAA Gold Seal Flight Instructor and an airline pilot.

Learn more and read news stories, tips, and tutorials about flying at Pilotscafe.com Connect with other pilots, ask questions about flying or help others on the aviation pilots forums.

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Instrument Flight Training - Old Analogue Or New Glass

By Jon Pickering

General Aviation in the twenty first century desists in pursuing the technology of it's larger heavier cousins. Affordable computers and new technology has now bridged the chasm between GA aircraft avionics suites and the glass cockpit behemoths of the sky, and to the private pilot, offers an exciting new dimension to flying.

There can be no doubt that such instrumentation offers extra safeguards with visual representation of terrain, moving maps and courses, you name it, it's all there at a glance. Everyone would agree that such instrumentation offers the VFR pilot a level of safety, never enjoyed before, and yet, some would argue (myself included) that the temptation of a glass presentation might encourage the pilot to push into an ever deteriorating situation that he or she may not have previously considered pushing had their aircraft been furnished with analogue gauges. We should not forget that a VFR pilot with a thousand hours, is still just a VFR pilot, and only trained to that level, and is required to have their eyes on the natural horizon. With the introduction of glass cockpits in GA, there will be a natural tendency for those pilots to start spending more of their time inside the cockpit. VFR pilots delighted with their new modern avionics will find themselves relying on it more and more and may result in getting into more trouble with it than if they were without it in the first place. Without the correct training and guidance, the outcome could be disastrous, as the pilot will be have been lulled into a false sense of security thinking that they are equipped to deal with situations that will likely spiral out of control.

There are many varied types of pilots, but we can reduce them to two kinds. Visual pilots and number pilots. Most of you will fall into the visual category, the remainder of us are number pilots, and then there are the very few who are adept at both. My friend and colleague is a visual pilot but is a very accomplished IFR pilot also. He uses a visual picture in his mind, but uses numbers to confirm his situational awareness picture. I myself am a number pilot, all the way, and do not use a visual picture at all, the numbers tell me everything I need to know. Number pilots I think, will make generally better IFR pilots than there visual counterparts. It is important to clarify however, whatever kind of pilot you happen to be, neither one way or the other is right or wrong, ultimately, your training should be tailored for the way your mind processes information.

And so, we have reached the point and subject of this article. Adding the IFR rating to your certificate, old analogue or new glass?

As most of you know, GPS, EFIS systems employ satellites to compute a position in space, and presents that information to you on a colourful logical display, complete with terrain, intersections, and all manner of numbers in the form of a tape, like headings, courses, altitudes and the list goes on. Essentially, your being presented visual and numerical information. The currant land based navigation system for pilots is usually in the form of V.O.R's and N.D.B's. Although N.D.B's are officially being phased out, the V.O.R system will be with us for the foreseeable future and most GA aircraft use this type of navigation coupled with Distance Measuring Equipment. (D.M.E) So, which system do you decide to use to acquire you IFR rating? Having spoken to a good cross section of people including D.P.E's (Designated Pilot Examiners), FAA inspectors, other CFII's it seems the general consensus of opinion is that it would be advantageous to the IFR candidate to learn the V.O.R based system first, acquire the rating and then transition to a glass system. If you happen to be flying an aircraft that has both the analogue system and a say a Garmin 530 also, you will have to learn not only the analogue system but also learn to use the GPS system also, the rule states that you must be able to use the equipment that is in the aircraft. This will add extra training hours to your rating. If your a renter, and wish to rent an aircraft that has analogue gauges, and you decided to learn on a glass system, odds are when you go to rent that aircraft, you will not be able to fly IFR with it. Simply put, you will be incompetent to fly that system. The final conclusion, you are, and always will be, so long as the old system is around, an incomplete, and sub-standard IFR pilot.

Case in point, an young airline pilot who visited Kona some time back, wanted to rent a Cessna 182, no GPS of any kind, could he file IFR, no he could not. Why? He learned on a E.F.I.S and was unable to fly IFR using the analogue gauges, he even admitted as such. He was however willing to give it a whirl, I won't bore you with the details, except to say he was not much better than a VFR pilot. The simple fact of the matter is, not to learn the land based V.O.R system of IFR puts you at such a disadvantage, it clearly is detrimental to your skills as an IFR pilot. It will be far easier to advance to glass systems than to learn on a glass system and then go back, who goes back to old systems when you have learned a new one? Remember, once you have your ticket in hand, you can transition at your leisure to any glass system you want to fly. In today's world, everyone is after instant gratification, ten day Instrument Ratings, bare bones minimum standards as stated in the P.T.S and bare bones minimum hours, as little studying as possible. If that's the kind of IFR pilot you want to be, good luck, fact is you will probably end up on a piece of government paper as another FAA statistic, because you just won't be prepared to fly real solid IFR when the time arrives, and it will some day. Any pilot with mediocre skill can fly IFR when all is hunky dory, it's when you have an instrument failure or two, it's night IFR, the weather is bad, visibility is nothing and the only company you have are the outside strobe lights and yourself, that's when the true test of your instrument training will be revealed. The simple fact of the matter is, your standard of IFR piloting will be considerably higher having mastered a analogue system first. One last note before I conclude this article, if you do have anyone else in the plane with you, you're responsible for their lives, get the picture?

Greetings everyone, Jon here, I am a CFII here in Kona Hawaii. I take flight training very seriously and in particular, the instrument rating. I am interested only in excellence and making you the best IFR pilot out there. Please feel free to visit my website at http://www.herculesflightservice.com for more information. If you have any questions, email me and I will be happy to provide you with an answer.

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Understanding Wake Turbulence and How to Avoid It

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By Jimmy Drago
Wake turbulence is one of the most common flight disturbances. Most pilots experience it on a regular basis. In short, wake turbulence is the result of wake vortices that are created whenever an airfoil produces lift. Lift results from a pressure differential at the wing surfaces, with the lowest pressure occurring above the wings and the highest pressure occurring beneath them. The pressure differential then causes a rollup of the airflow behind the wings, which results in a swirling air mass that occurs downstream of the wingtips. The air mass rotates counterclockwise at the right wing and clockwise at the left wing.

Slow flying, heavy aircraft produce the strongest wake, but short wing aircraft, due to their short wings, are the most prone to experiencing a variety of wake turbulence situations, the most dangerous of which is an induced roll and yaw. Because the pilot has little altitude for recovery, induced roll and yaw is particularly dangerous during take off and landing. During takeoff and landing, vortices push toward the ground and move away from the runway when the wind is low. But moderate to high wind keeps upwind the vortex in vicinity of the runway, which can cause the down wind vortex to push an aircraft into neighboring runway paths. When an aircraft reaches altitude, vortices stabilize at between 500 and 900 feet beneath its flight level. Until then, however, pilots must make certain to avoid drifting into other flight paths.

Uncommanded aircraft movements are the greatest indicators that an airplane is experiencing wake turbulence. Because the onset of wake turbulence is often surprisingly subtle, there have been many fatal instances where pilots attempted a landing during mild turbulence only to experience severe turbulence as they neared the runway. When a pilot suspects that wake is affecting his or her aircraft upon landing, the safest move is to execute a go-around or a missed approach in order to prepare for stronger wake turbulence on the re-approach.

With that said, there are ways to insure that wake turbulence is avoided in the first place. Starting with takeoff, departing a few minutes later than your scheduled departure time if another aircraft immediately preceded you is a smart idea, especially on a windy day. Then, once you depart, avoid crossing behind and below the preceding plane. Instead, try to climb above the plane's flight path or deviate slightly upwind from its path. If you have no choice but to cross behind and below its path, attempt the pass at 1000 feet or more below its flight path. When landing, make sure that your touchdown point is well ahead of a preceding aircraft's touchdown point, and always land well before an outgoing aircraft reaches its rotation point. If you're landing behind another aircraft on a crossing approach, be sure to cross above its flight path.

Avoiding wind turbulence is one the most important safety aspects for large and small aircraft alike. Unless you take the right precautions, wind turbulence can lead to an induced roll and yaw, which can be fatal upon takeoff or landing. Wind turbulence is an everyday aspect of flying. But unless pilots understand how it works and, therefore, how to avoid letting it get the best of their aircraft, their chances of experiencing an induced roll and yaw remain high. For more information on wind turbulence and how to avoid it, visit apstraining.com. They are expert instructors in aerobatics and spin/stall flight training.

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Flight Training - Instrument Rating Basics - First Crucial Hours

By Jon Pickering

Today I am going to write about an aspect of IFR training, and one of the most vital aspects of Instrument rating there is. This concerns both CFII's and pilots alike. The need to be able to fly the aircraft precisely. That means training to what I like to call, zero, zero tolerance. That means dead on an altitude, dead on a heading. Pressure from pilots to rush into flying approaches, holds, etc. will end up being completely detrimental to them in the long run, and as yet, are unable to comprehend the negative impact this will have. Pilots new to IFR training must be made to understand the need to master precision flying skills before learning to fly holds, holding entries and such.

I get inquiries from pilots all the time, such as, "why do I have to spend all this time doing this? When can we move on to the good stuff?" and similar questions. These questions, are indicative of a pilot who has no concept or understanding of the absolute necessity to master this skill prior to advancing further into the syllabus. As CFII's, it is our responsibility to convince new IFR students that without this skill, probably, the most important skill in IFR, they will never make safe, good, IFR pilots. The acquisition of this skill will enable them to fly safely, it will enable them to manage their instrument flight workload effectively and efficiently.

IFR student pilots, embrace this phase of your training, learn to fly the plane precisely in any configuration, learn to trim the aircraft for a climb, a decent, level flight, an airspeed. Trim skills will be the most valuable weapon in your IFR arsenal. Once you have that skill mastered, it will make the rest of your IFR training much easier. If you decide to take short cuts and rush it, consequently you will be fighting the course all the way through, your confidence will suffer and you will become despondent and disillusioned.

A fair amount of time will be spent with your hands off the yolk to perform other duties, you will be unable to do this if you are having to make corrections to maintain the desired headings and altitudes. In smooth air your plane will be trimmed up exactly to maintain an altitude, and your able to maintain an exact heading with your feet on the rudder pedals. A demonstration of these skills consistently, and competently will be the indication for your instrument instructor to advance you into the next phase of your training, whilst never permitting your newly acquired skill to regress. If you have not realized thus far, you have now mastered a great skill, and are already head and shoulders above your VFR peers. Further into your rating and undertaking actual IFR flights, it should have dawned upon you by now, how essential this skill is. In busy airspace, typically Class B, "Air Traffic Control" take deviations in altitude very seriously, a deviation in altitude could get you violated. At the very least, a call to the control tower.

Instrument Flight Rules and Instrument training is not to be taken lightly.

My name is Jon Pickering. I am a CFII here in Kona Hawaii. I take flight training very seriously and in particular, the instrument rating. Please feel free to visit my website at http://www.herculesflightservice.com for more information.

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Running on Fumes - "Those Fuel Gauges Always Read a Little Low"

By Byron Edgington

Ever heard this one from another pilot, or possibly even your instructor? Maybe they also told you there's a margin of error built in, or "that's just an engineering number", or perhaps your check's in the mail? It makes me wonder how many pilots are traversing the sky right now feeling, as the industry lingo has it, 'fat, dumb and happy' looking at gauges that are telling them the absolute rock bottom truth, while they're busy ignoring what they're seeing?

Here's my own experience with this conundrum of what I'll refer to as gauge-denial. They say confession is good for the soul. Well, every pilot ought to be forced, on a regular basis, to confess his or her sins, the transgressions they've made in aviation during the past year, and then submit them anonymously for the benefit of all. The following is from my distant past, when I'd been a helicopter pilot for a very short time, but should have known better anyway. It involved a long cross country flight, over a lot of real estate, with no access to a fuel truck, and a fellow pilot who was in deep denial with me.

We'd taken off in our UH-1 Huey from home base around nine a.m. with a couple of brass types aboard, a crewchief, and a full bag of gas. In the UH-1H, a full load of jet fuel will keep the blades turning and Mister Engine happy for about two hours and thirty minutes, give or take. After that time things get very quiet. The 'H' model Huey's fuel tank held 209 gallons. That figure will be important to remember later on.

Takeoff and cruise to our destination were uneventful. It was a glorious fall day, and by ten o'clock we were circling our landing spot near the Ohio River. We landed, the generals departed for their appointed rounds, and we shut the Lycoming T53 turbine off to await their return. The flight down had been comfortably quick; a tailwind had assisted our passage, and the Huey--not known for either speed or aerodynamic excellence--had achieved a remarkable 115 knots across the ground. In Vietnam, where I'd flown as recently as one year prior to this incident, that speed was more than sufficient to take me from one end of our area of operations to the other. Indeed, in the war zone, our standard cruise speed in the Huey was 80 knots, or slow enough that the heavily loaded Cobra gunships could keep up with us until they'd unloaded ordnance. This factor may have contributed to my complacency about the fuel situation that day. Another factor, about which the aviation god was notably indifferent, was that I'd survived the war, so I may have been feeling a bit bulletproof. When we landed, the gauge read 740 pounds, or enough for about one hour and fifteen minutes of cruise flight.

The generals returned at eleven o'clock and boarded my Huey. Soon the turbine whined, the blades spun up, and we took off into a moderate headwind, bound for home.

Leveling at 3,000 feet, and getting the cockpit cleaned up, we settled in for what I expected to be a trip north that may be a tad longer than the one south, but not much. At that point in my career I'd not heard the old expression about never making up with tailwind what you lose in headwind, so I had no idea the reverse was equally true. A couple of rough calculations on my trusty whiz wheel, and I began to see the harsh wisdom of that statement. Checking a second, then a third time, I spun the wheel on the E6B device, rechecked the settings, blinked a time or two, and shook my head. According to Mister Flight Computer, our ground speed was a glacial 87 knots. In Vietnam that would have been no cause for concern; over there I'd never flown more than forty miles in any direction or I would have been greeted quite rudely. But this was friendly Ohio, where forty miles was only halfway home. I looked at the fuel gauge: 500 pounds, or enough for about 45 minutes of flight with no reserve. One more look at the map, and my concern mounted a bit more: our course line to home base was exactly 80 nautical miles. Given our ground speed, we had another 50 minutes to fly. This was not rocket surgery; we didn't have enough fuel to get home.

Unless, as a lot of pilots still believe with varying degrees of acceptance, 'those gauges always read a little low', in which case we might squeak by.

As new to the flying game as I was, and as prepared to assume that last adage, as interested in an uneventful flight, and fully vested in getting the generals back to their very important meeting, I opted to press on. The rest is ascribed to experience--how it is gained, and at what expense, if we're lucky.

Eighteen miles from home, the 20 minute fuel low warning light flashed on, its brilliant glow filling up the caution panel like the tilt light on a pinball machine. Great, I thought, reaching for the flight computer. To my consternation, our ground speed had actually decreased a bit, further increasing my store of aviation experience, by teaching me that headwinds always increase as fuel level decreases.

Yet one more spin of the flight computer revealed an ETE of 21 minutes, give or take. By then the warning light had been casting its ardent yellow glow in my cockpit for three minutes. I could have fried an egg in my armpit. Despite the cool fall day, sweat sneaked from under my helmet, and trickled down my back. I hoped the generals and my crewchief didn't notice my discomfort; this was going to be awfully damned close.

Here's the upshot of the tale. We landed on the ramp at home base with the fuel gauge on its absolute zero setting. The 20 minute, low fuel warning light had been alight for 23 minutes. With utter relief, we twisted the throttle off, and the blades wound down. I couldn't state with any degree of precision if the engine had stopped due to my input, or if we'd just flat run out of gas. Watching the fuel truck drive up and stop, I knew the topping off to follow would be very interesting indeed.

The blades stopped, my crewchief tied them down, and the fueler began his ritual. The fuel nozzle slipped into its port, and jet fuel began splashing into the tank, displacing what fumes were left there. I watched the truck's fuel delivery meter race on, clicking along through fifty, one hundred, one-hundred-fifty gallons. As it passed through 190 gallons and never slowed, I knew we'd come damned close to fuel exhaustion. Finally, at 201 gallons the automatic shutoff snapped, and the tank was full. I'd landed the Huey with 8 gallons left in the tank, about enough for two or three minutes of flight. That figure is misleading, however. Could I have hovered along another two or three minutes? No, and here's why: according to the operator's manual, the UH-1 fuel tank has about five gallons of unusable fuel. Thirty seconds or so would have made the difference that day between a landing and an inflight flameout.

I learned a lot on that mission. To plan better; to find fuel somewhere--even a remote spot--to ignore a general's priorities in favor of aviation safety; and to stop listening to those old, tired aviation maxims that give comfort when what we really need is fuel--and a dose of common sense.

Does the gauge 'always read a little low'? It did that day, lucky for me. But the unusable fuel factor could have done me in, regardless. So next time you hear of a margin of error, or a built in engineering factor with the aircraft, take it from me. The best way to stay safe, and to retire, as I did, with little fanfare, and your record intact, is this: build in a little margin of error the other direction. Remember, those fuel gauges always read a little high.

Byron Edgington is a writer, public speaker and retired commercial helicopter pilot. He is also the author of the aviation memoir, The Sky Behind Me to be published soon.

Byron@caffection.com

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Is a Private Pilot Considered an Amateur Pilot?

Image via Wikipedia

by Chet Val

The media is always on hand when an accident or incident involving a general aviation aircraft occurs. It seems that they watch like a hawk for anything negative news to promote. Be it for tv ratings, newspaper circulation, magazine sales, etc the watchful eye of the media has always been quick to carefully detail airplane crashes and near misses. The private pilot is always being scrutinized in the media and in many cases being referred to as an amateur pilot. The word amateur is defined in numerous ways. It can be defined as a person attached to a particular pursuit or study without formal training or pay. Another definition is someone who pursues a study or sport as an informal pastime or hobby. The definitions are similar and broad. The problem is that the term amateur pilot paints the picture of an individual who reads a magazine on flying airplanes, and then hops into the nearest cockpit and flies away. Acquiring a private pilot certificate and the legal means to fly an airplane indeed requires formal training as well as certain medical requirements as well as successful completion of numerous tests. So where does the word amateur come into the picture? In comparison, a private pilot flying for hobby and fun does in fact need substantially less training then a commercial pilot flying cargo or human beings across the sky professionally.

Flying for sport or hobby requires a private pilot certificate in the USA. There are also certificates available that require less training such as the Sport Pilot certificate. This certification carries with it certain stipulations due to the fact that it requires less training and is less costly to the student. The private certificate however provides the pilot with the ability to fly in controlled airspace which can be critical depending on where he or she lives or flies. Another difference between these two certificates is the need for a medical exam by a certified medical examiner specifically qualified and approved by the FAA. A Sport pilot certificate does not require the student to pass an aviation medical exam.

Future pilots must be able to understand, speak, and read English. Aircraft control towers and airports, use the English language for communication. This is actually true in most airports around the world, even where English is not the native language. Choosing a flight school is very important. Information is always available at your local general aviation airports. Training does not come cheap. A private pilot certificate requires forty hours minimum of actual flying time. This includes the time in the airplane with an instructor as well as time spent flying solo. Many flight schools recommend students seek a medical certificate from your local FAA certified physician prior to starting any training. Once the student has passed that, your flight school or private flight instructor will begin the process of both ground training as well as in-flight training. Ground school varies tremendously among students based on amount of time spent per week along with the rate of material absorption. Student pilots can acquire information through a variety of methods including the internet, training videos, and good old fashion books and manuals. At some point in your training beyond basic ground school, student pilots have to take a multiple choice written test, nowadays typically from a computer terminal, with software provided by the Federal Aviation Administration.

Upon passing the written FAA test, as it is referred to, you need to log in-flight training hours beyond the minimums required by the FAA. For a private certificate, students need to log solo time, night flying time, and demonstrate the ability to successfully compete cross-country flights which are flights from one airport to another. A check-ride, or final test, is then required with your local FAA designated examiner. The check-ride includes an oral test accompanied by a practical test where the student must demonstrate a variety of specific maneuvers and familiarity with the airplane. This is the point where the word amateur becomes skewed. With all the requirements met and tests passed, the student will be issued a private pilot certificate. Although a pilot's experience is measured over time in flying hours and new pilots certainly lack air time when compared to a pilot who has been flying for years or even decades, it still seems a bit harsh to label a private pilot as an amateur pilot.

Chet owns and operates Eye of the Pilot, a private pilot networking site dedicated to sharing the experience of general aviation and the adventure of being a private pilot. You can visit Eye of the Pilot to view general aviation pilot videos and aviation pictures submitted by members. Account signup is free for pilots of any rating.

Learning to Fly - Structuring Your Lesson and Study Plan to Save Time, Effort, and Money

Image by Sam Kindler via Flickr

By Ben Lovegrove

If you have had a trial flight and you find yourself determined to learn to fly, then you're probably eager to start right away, but before you embark on this project spend a little time planning a study schedule. Obtaining a Private Pilot's license is a rewarding experience in many ways, but it will take up time, effort, and money. You can save on all three by having a structured training plan.

Unless you are retired or fortunate enough not to have to work for a living then most of your time will be taken up by your employment. You may be footloose and fancy free or your may be in a relationship and you will have to take into account the time you devote to your partner and to your home and any other responsibilities.

Learning to fly is like acquiring any others skill; it takes practice and diligent study. So the first question you have to ask yourself is how much time you have spare to devote to your studies. Ideally you should have at least one flying lesson per week but you will also need time to study books, CDs, and other materials. Two lessons a week would be preferable, but it would be difficult to arrange more if you work full time. If you're not working then of course you could book lessons whenever you like. However, you also need to spread the lessons out and add ground school studies into the schedule as they are an essential component that compliments the practical lessons.

A flying lesson consists of a pre-flight briefing in which your instructor will explain the purpose of the lesson and the desired outcome, and a post-flight briefing in which your instructor will review the lesson. Add to that the time spent traveling to and from the airfield and an hour long flying lesson can easily take up three hours. There will be days in which you have two lessons back to back, and later on in the course you'll go on longer flights across country so the time factor will increase.

The point to remember is that one or two flying lessons and accompanying ground school studies can easily take up eight hours per week when you start your lessons. Your enthusiasm will be high so these will be hours you'll enjoy but you may need to explain to your partner that you need to make this commitment in order to achieve the goal. Drops in continuity of training and practice will eventually cost you more time, effort, and money as you catch up when training resumes.

Weather will be a huge influence on your continuity of practice. If you live in the UK then you'll be very familiar with the unpredictable weather. Even the summer cannot be relied up to provide the ideal conditions for lessons and if your chosen airfield has grass runways then there may be days lost in the winter when the ground is waterlogged. Bear in mind that in three of your weekend lessons might be canceled due to adverse weather conditions. If you only fly at weekends and one lesson is canceled then it could be two weeks between your lessons. How much will you remember from one lesson to the next?

Your choice of airfield may involve weighing up the pros and cons of each. If you live near a grass airfield but another with a hard runway is within reasonable distance it might be better to travel to the further field in order to take advantage of the reliable runway and other advantages like the busier control tower. A busier tower will mean more radio calls and that is never a bad thing. R/T (Radio Telephony) i.e. talking on the radio, is often a bit of a psychological block to some student pilots. Fear of saying the wrong thing and appearing ignorant has caused many a student to feel anxious about using the radio. The only way to overcome this is to develop confidence through practice and knowledge. The more you use the radio the better you'll feel about it.

So assuming you have assigned blocks of hours each week that you can commit to learning to fly then your training should keep to a healthy pace and you will soon be marveling at the new skills and knowledge that you have acquired. You will also save yourself money because the continuity of practice and study will cut down the number of flying hours it takes for you to reach the required standard for the practical exams at the end of the course. Once you've bought the study materials it costs no more to study for one hour than it does for ten, but being in the air costs hard cash for every minute of fuel burnt. You want to be good enough to be a competent certified pilot but you don't want to spend more money than is necessary.

Flying schools often advertise a price for a course of lessons that will take your from beginner to someone who has flown all the hours required in the license syllabus, but these figures are based on the minimum number of hours in the syllabus and most students will exceed this figure for a variety of reasons. So budget for more than the price in the advert as it's unlikely you will be ready for the final exams in the minimum time. Save time, effort and money by sticking to your schedule and keeping to a pace of practice and learning that will eventually reward you with your pilot's wings.

Ben Lovegrove is a holder of a UK Private Pilot's Licence. He learned to fly in the 1980s and enjoys nothing more than some aerobatics over the green fields of England. He has two aviation related blogs: Aviate, Navigate, Communicate and Love Airlines.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Ben_Lovegrove
http://EzineArticles.com/?Learning-to-Fly---Structuring-Your-Lesson-and-Study-Plan-to-Save-Time,-Effort,-and-Money&id=2719421

Staying on Top of Your Game As a Pilot

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By Jeffrey Synk

There are many things you can do in aviation that will keep you at the top of your flying game and offer lots of enjoyment and excitement whether you are flying or not. New ratings, new certificates, pilot networking, aviation organizations, and magazines are but a few, but before I talk about those more in-depth, first I would like to share with you a little story.

If You Give A Pilot A License
I occasionally read a story to my daughter called, "If You Give a Mouse a Cookie," by Laura Joffe Numeroff. It's a story about what happens when you give a mouse a cookie. You discover that if you give a mouse a cookie, he is probably going to want a glass of milk. And if you give him a glass of milk, he is probably going to want a napkin, and if you give him a napkin...well, you get the drift. The story goes on and on until finally it comes full-circle with, "If you give a mouse a cookie..."

"If You Give A Mouse a Cookie" is a charming story and somewhat similar to what flying is all about because once you get your Private Pilot license (certificate), it is really hard to stop there. It's basically a tease. Your realize that you are somewhat limited, so you get your Instrument rating. Whew! Your done! Oh, but not quite. You've done some cross-country flights and some night flights and suddenly you realize that you have over 200 hours in your logbook. Then someone says, "Hey, why don't you get your Commercial rating?" This gets you thinking that maybe you might want to try to make some money flying, so you get your Commercial rating. Eventually it becomes one certificate and rating after another much like if you "give a mouse a cookie."

Now whether you want to just stay a Private Pilot or get multiple ratings and certificates, the fact is you have to keep training and learning. Flying is a skill and one that needs to be practiced regularly much like any endeavor you undertake. Besides, it keeps flying interesting and fresh and offers a ton of opportunities, especially if your goal is to fly professionally someday. Now you don't have to go get ALL the ratings available, of course, because that can get very expensive. It is fine to be a Private Pilot and fly because you love to fly. But, either way, you have to stay current on the latest developments in aviation and "proficient" in order to fly safely. This is the best way to stay on top of your game but it is easier said than done.

Staying Motivated About Flying When Not Flying
Money and weather are always an issue when it comes to flying. So what do you do if money is tight or the weather seems to always be bad but you still want to stay involved in flying? Even after you have received your Private Pilot license or have gone all out and launched a career as a pilot, there are always ways you can be working to keep up with what is going on in aviation and the aviation industry. Here are a few suggestions:

Join An Aviation Group
One of the best things you can do to stay motivated and stay involved in flying is to join a group of other like-minded pilots in your area or on-line, like on Facebook. Pilots are a unique group of people and the experiences you have flying are unlike any other hobby or profession there is. It's natural you will want to belong to a community of pilots who share those common experiences. A few groups you may want to consider are aircraft restoration societies, glider clubs, Civil Air Patrol (http://www.gocivilairpatrol.com) and air show planning organizations. All these groups focus on improving aviation in their own way and are a lot of fun to be a part of.

Networking With Other Pilots
Networking with other pilots can offer you many benefits as well. The groups mentioned above are great for networking and a flight school is a great place to build future relationships, too. Your local fixed-base operator (FBO), which is an aircraft service center at an airport that provides fueling, aircraft rentals and possibly charter services, is ideal. Just striking up a conversation about the flying conditions that day or sharing important facts about the local area like "flight restrictions" or preferred operational procedures that you know about or heard about from other pilots may open the doors to opportunities undreamed of. One very good friend landed a flying job just this way. And don't forget to stay in touch with your flight instructor. You never know when you may need that letter of recommendation for a future airline job interview and who better to provide that letter than the pilot who taught YOU how to fly?

Building A Relationship With The FAA
There are other levels of networking and staying in the flying game that you can tap into as a member of the aviation community that you may not have thought of before. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Even though we think of the FAA as that big governmental agency in the sky, the FAA is staffed by individuals who are interested in taking care of pilots and making sure everybody lives up to the same standards so the industry is safe and profitable. If you live near a big enough airport, you probably have an FAA Flight Standards District Office (FSDO) (http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/field_offices/fsdo/) near you. These representatives would like nothing more than to know you better to find out how the agency can serve your needs. At many locations, the FAA holds meetings every other week that are really classes for pilots just like you to help you stay up-to-date with your education and to answer any questions that may have come up about the aviation industry and the FAA's relationship to it. Furthermore, the FAA offers free training and free publications through their website all focused exclusively on the aviation industry that you can take advantage of. So include your local FAA FSDO representatives in your network of professional associations. It will pay you well to tap this huge resource.

Flying Magazines And Publications
Finally, flying magazines and publications are a great way to stay in touch when you don't have much time. One of the reasons I got back into flying after a long hiatus was because of the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA) "Flight Training" magazine available at any bookstore. Here was a magazine that "talked to me." It kept me up-to-date on the latest-and-greatest technology, procedures, news, and commentaries regarding aviation. Then, when I became a flight instructor, it offered valuable tips on instruction techniques and ideas. Another terrific magazine is "Flying." Great articles and lots of good information are filled with every issue. These magazines will definitely keep you on top of your game.

Conclusion
So there you have it. Flying, and flying often, or getting new ratings and certificates is by far the best way to stay proficient and to grow as a pilot. Realistically though, money, time, and personal commitments often get in the way. Hopefully, you have seen that there are other ways to stay in the game of flying even if you aren't actually flying. It is important to stay involved in flying once you start because if you don't, your "flying" dream may slip away and that would be tragic. Being involved with aviation groups, networking, building relationships, and reading magazines are some of the best ways I know how to stay in the game.

Jeffrey is a captain at regional airline and is based in Colorado Springs, Colorado. He flies the CRJ200, CRJ700, and CRJ900. He holds an Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) certificate, a CL-65 (CRJ200) type rating, Gold Seal Certificated Flight Instructor (CFI), and Advanced Ground Instructor. He has over 4000 hours total flight time.
He writes the blog Almost the Speed of Sound (http://www.flycrj.com) which is about his experiences, insights, and thoughts about being an airline captain and flight instructor. He is also the author of "The CRJ Quicknotes Study Guide" which is available at http://www.flycrj.com/order.html
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Jeffrey_Synk
http://EzineArticles.com/?Staying-on-Top-of-Your-Game-As-a-Pilot&id=2469488

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Airplanes Don't Stall, Pilots Stall Them

Image via Wikipedia

By Doug Daniel

When smooth airflow separates from your wings they stall, losing most of their lift. If you are lucky the airplane drops like a brick, pitches down, accelerates and starts to fly normally again. If you are not so lucky, one wing stalls, rolling your airplane toward the stalled wing as it progresses to a spin before you can recover. It is probably a good idea to keep the airflow attached to the wing and the tail and every other surface needed for controlled flight.

An aerodynamicist would tell you that stalls can only occur when an airfoil reaches or exceeds its critical angle of attack. I would say that a stall occurs only when you try to make the wind turn too sharp a corner.

You see, air is sticky. Not very sticky but it is a little sticky. An aerodynamicist would clear his throat; raise his eyebrows and say, "Viscous." So let's ignore the aerodynamicist. It's sticky. When air blows past a gently curved surface, like a wing, it tends to stick to the surface even though the surface curves away from the wind.

If the wing is symmetric top and bottom and the wind is coming straight on, the wind impacts the front of the wing and builds a high pressure area there. Then as it starts to follow the contour of the wing, like anything following a curved path, it gets pulled out. But its stickiness holds it next to the surface. The result is low pressure over most of the surface, top and bottom.

Now if you pitch the wing up a bit by pulling back on the stick a bit, the air on top must change direction a bit more than the air on the bottom. The result is more low pressure on the top and less on the bottom. Perhaps the high pressure area on the bottom of the wing is bigger than before. The wing is sucked up by the top and pushed up by the bottom. We call this lift.

Suppose you pitch the wing up a lot by pulling the stick a long way back. The air on the top has to change direction a lot and the pressure on the top drops a lot. If you pull the stick far enough, the low pressure area on the top of the wing sucks air from the back of the wing forward, separating the airflow from the top of the wing. This is bad. The low pressure area on the top of the wing disappears as it is filled by the forward flowing air. The wing loses lift. This is a stall.

The airflow separates from the wing of a properly designed airplane before it separates from the tail. If the tail has lift and the wing doesn't the airplane's wing drops and the tail doesn't. This is a good thing because the wing comes down and faces a lower pitch attitude. The results are that the wind re-attaches to the upper surface, lift is restored and the airplane returns to normal.

Now suppose the pilot continues pulling back on the stick. As soon as the wing develops lift, it goes up too far again and stalls again. We call this bobbing action 'buffeting.'

Buffeting is good because it warns the pilot that he or she is pulling too hard on the stick and the wing is ready to enter a serious stall - one that could lead to a potentially fatal spin.

So now we know that the real warning of an impending serious stall is buffeting. We also know that buffeting is caused by pulling the stick too far. So we know that the way to avoid a stall is to pull less when we feel buffeting. We also know that if we pull less on the elevator, that the airplane will go down. That could be a really bad thing. Increasing the engine's power simultaneously with easing up on the elevator can mitigate that sinking feeling

Notice that no where in this discussion of what causes stalls and what to do about them was the concept of airspeed needed. Stalls are only caused by pitching the wings up too far - nothing else. Even though stalling speed is a useful term, there really is no unique stalling speed for an airplane. You have to read the fine print. What 'stall speed' usually means is the speed at which an airplane's wing exceeds its maximum pitch attitude if the airplane is loaded to maximum landing weight, is in the landing configuration and flying straight ahead

Doug Daniel is a long time pilot, flight instructor, software engineering manager and author. His department developed the software for the out-the-window-displays for the space shuttle, F-117, RS-71 and numerous other exotic aircraft simulators. His writing focuses on flying techniques designed to make flying easier and safer. If this was interesting, visit his website at http://www.FlyingSecretsRevealed.com/flying_questions/

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Doug_Daniel
http://EzineArticles.com/?Airplanes-Dont-Stall,-Pilots-Stall-Them&id=2010448

Airplanes Don't Stall, Pilots Stall Them

Image by I am Mike's photos via Flickr

By Doug Daniel

When smooth airflow separates from your wings they stall, losing most of their lift. If you are lucky the airplane drops like a brick, pitches down, accelerates and starts to fly normally again. If you are not so lucky, one wing stalls, rolling your airplane toward the stalled wing as it progresses to a spin before you can recover. It is probably a good idea to keep the airflow attached to the wing and the tail and every other surface needed for controlled flight.


An aerodynamicist would tell you that stalls can only occur when an airfoil reaches or exceeds its critical angle of attack. I would say that a stall occurs only when you try to make the wind turn too sharp a corner.

You see, air is sticky. Not very sticky but it is a little sticky. An aerodynamicist would clear his throat; raise his eyebrows and say, "Viscous." So let's ignore the aerodynamicist. It's sticky. When air blows past a gently curved surface, like a wing, it tends to stick to the surface even though the surface curves away from the wind.

If the wing is symmetric top and bottom and the wind is coming straight on, the wind impacts the front of the wing and builds a high pressure area there. Then as it starts to follow the contour of the wing, like anything following a curved path, it gets pulled out. But its stickiness holds it next to the surface. The result is low pressure over most of the surface, top and bottom.

Now if you pitch the wing up a bit by pulling back on the stick a bit, the air on top must change direction a bit more than the air on the bottom. The result is more low pressure on the top and less on the bottom. Perhaps the high pressure area on the bottom of the wing is bigger than before. The wing is sucked up by the top and pushed up by the bottom. We call this lift.

Image via Wikipedia

Suppose you pitch the wing up a lot by pulling the stick a long way back. The air on the top has to change direction a lot and the pressure on the top drops a lot. If you pull the stick far enough, the low pressure area on the top of the wing sucks air from the back of the wing forward, separating the airflow from the top of the wing. This is bad. The low pressure area on the top of the wing disappears as it is filled by the forward flowing air. The wing loses lift. This is a stall.

The airflow separates from the wing of a properly designed airplane before it separates from the tail. If the tail has lift and the wing doesn't the airplane's wing drops and the tail doesn't. This is a good thing because the wing comes down and faces a lower pitch attitude. The results are that the wind re-attaches to the upper surface, lift is restored and the airplane returns to normal.

Now suppose the pilot continues pulling back on the stick. As soon as the wing develops lift, it goes up too far again and stalls again. We call this bobbing action 'buffeting.'

Buffeting is good because it warns the pilot that he or she is pulling too hard on the stick and the wing is ready to enter a serious stall - one that could lead to a potentially fatal spin.

So now we know that the real warning of an impending serious stall is buffeting. We also know that buffeting is caused by pulling the stick too far. So we know that the way to avoid a stall is to pull less when we feel buffeting. We also know that if we pull less on the elevator, that the airplane will go down. That could be a really bad thing. Increasing the engine's power simultaneously with easing up on the elevator can mitigate that sinking feeling.

Notice that no where in this discussion of what causes stalls and what to do about them was the concept of airspeed needed. Stalls are only caused by pitching the wings up too far - nothing else. Even though stalling speed is a useful term, there really is no unique stalling speed for an airplane. You have to read the fine print. What 'stall speed' usually means is the speed at which an airplane's wing exceeds its maximum pitch attitude if the airplane is loaded to maximum landing weight, is in the landing configuration and flying straight ahead.


Doug Daniel is a long time pilot, flight instructor, software engineering manager and author. His department developed the software for the out-the-window-displays for the space shuttle, F-117, RS-71 and numerous other exotic aircraft simulators. His writing focuses on flying techniques designed to make flying easier and safer. If this was interesting, visit his website at http://www.FlyingSecretsRevealed.com/flying_questions/

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Doug_Daniel
http://EzineArticles.com/?Airplanes-Dont-Stall,-Pilots-Stall-Them&id=2010448

Whether the weather be hot. Or whether the weather be not....

As a VFR rated pilot the one thing I am constantly looking to understand and master is the weather. That and the price of oil are the two things that govern the amount of flying I can do in a given period of time (When oil is up aviation gasoline is expensive and I don't fly as much)

So is there a simple way to learn and understand the weather? Yes there is - get a book and learn it. There is no substitute for understanding why weather does what it does and how clouds are formed etc. etc.

In the short term though as a pilot you will want to be able to decrypt a TAF or a METAR.

So let's have a look at these. First things first

A TAF is a weather forecast. It's easy to remember this because it has an 'f' in it like forecast. A METAR is a current state.

TAF's and METAR's are usually written in shorthand with a HUGE number of abbreviations, but they all, generall,y follow a very similar format. Learn the format and you are well on the way to understanding what is what.

Here's a typical METAR: EGLF 031420Z 06004KT CAVOK 02/M05 Q1028

When translated that becomes :

Conditions at:	EGLF (FARNBOROUGH, GB) observed 1420 UTC 03 January 2009
Temperature:	2.0°C (36°F)
Dewpoint:	-5.0°C (23°F) [RH = 60%]
Pressure (altimeter):	30.35 inches Hg (1028.0 mb)
Winds:	from the ENE (60 degrees) at 5 MPH (4 knots; 2.1 m/s)
Visibility:	6 or more miles (10+ km)
Ceiling:	ceiling and visibility are OK
Clouds:	unknown
Weather:	no significant weather observed at this time

It's not difficult really.. You start with the location of the METAR (EGLF - Farnbourough) and the date and time (all times are in zulu - UTC or Greenwich Mean Time as it used to be called) 031420Z This is the third of the month at 14:20 zulu.
Following that is the wind information 06004KT (from 060 degress at 04 knots)
Then the cloud conditions: CAVOK (Ceiling and visibility OK)
Then the temperature:02m05 (2degrees temperature and minus 5 degress dew point)
Finally there is the atmospheric pressure Q1028 which is 1028 millibars (this is a UK setting in the US this would be something like 29.92inches of mercury)

A TAF is very similar to a Metar except that it identifies a time period for which it is valid and adds information about expected weather conditions:

EGLF 080729Z 0807/0815 25004KT 2000 BR SCT005 BKN035 TEMPO 0807/0811 BKN005 BECMG 0811/0814 6000 NSW



This can be translated as

Forecast for:	EGLF (FARNBOROUGH, GB)
Text:	EGLF 080729Z 0807/0815 25004KT 2000 BR SCT005 BKN035
Forecast period:	0700 to 1100 UTC 08 January 2009
Forecast type:	FROM: standard forecast or significant change
Winds:	from the WSW (250 degrees) at 5 MPH (4 knots; 2.1 m/s)
Visibility:	1.24 miles (2.00 km)
Ceiling:	3500 feet AGL
Clouds:	scattered clouds at 500 feet AGL broken clouds at 3500 feet AGL
Weather:	BR (mist)
Text:	TEMPO 0807/0811 BKN005
Forecast period:	0700 to 1100 UTC 08 January 2009
Forecast type:	TEMPORARY: The following changes expected for less than half the time period
Ceiling:	500 feet AGL
Clouds:	broken clouds at 500 feet AGL
Weather:	no significant weather forecast for this period
Text:	BECMG 0811/0814 6000 NSW
Forecast period:	1100 to 1500 UTC 08 January 2009
Forecast type:	BECOMING: Conditions expected to become as follows by 1400 UTC 08 January 2009
Winds:	from the WSW (250 degrees) at 5 MPH (4 knots; 2.1 m/s)
Visibility:	4 miles (6 km)
Ceiling:	3500 feet AGL
Clouds:	scattered clouds at 500 feet AGL broken clouds at 3500 feet AGL
Weather:	NSW (no significant weather)

So basically you can split this into three sections - a 'main' section indicating the general forecast:
EGLF 080729Z 0807/0815 25004KT 2000 BR SCT005 BKN035

A 'temporary section' indicating differences for a subset of the time
TEMPO 0807/0811 BKN005

and an expected transition after that temporary time
BECMG 0811/0814 6000 NSW

Once again we have location (EGLF - Farnbourough) followed by a time of forecast (080729Z - 7.29Zulu on the 8th of the month) with validity time following that (0807/0815 - from 7.00hours until 15:00 hours on the 8th)

After the timings and validity we arrive at the wind information : 25004kt (Wind from the WSW at 4 knots)

Then comes the visibilty information : 2000 (2000 metres = 2 Km)
Then the predominant weather information BR = mist
Then the cloud coverage scattered clouds at 500 feet AGL and broken clouds at 3500 feet AGL

Temporary sections indicate conditions between certain hours in this case 07: 00 and 11:00 on the 08th where the cloud will be broken at 500 feet.

For a complete list of what the different weather abbreviations mean, visit this page. I know it looks like there are a lot to remember, but if you think about it there aren't actually too many. For example if you do most of your flying in the South of England the chances of you having to remember 'VA- Volcanic Ash' and 'PO' for 'Dust/sand whirls - Dust devils' are unlikely. Typically there will be the following

BR - Mist
SH - Showers
SN - Snow
RA - Rain
DZ - Drizzle
HZ - Haze
FZ - Freezing
OVC - Overcast
FG - Fog
GR - hail
PY - Spray

If you live in Southern California, or near Mount St Helens, Washington, there are probably different ones you need to be wtaching out for....

Instructor Idiosyncracies

Over my years flying I have been fortunate enough to have been instructed by quite a limited number of people.

There was Aaron in Orlando who took me through my initial training. Then there was Simon at Thruxton who took me mostly through to my PPL check ride. The check ride itself was taken by Bob - a long time instructor and examiner. Since then I've done a couple of check flights and these have been taken with instructors I've not met before.

What is actually very interesting is the individual idiosyncrasies of the instructors themselves. Obviously my major influence was Aaron who took me for 75% of all the hours I've flown. I knew what he was looking for when flying, I was comfortable with his teaching style and we worked well together as a unit.

Simon was very similar. His teaching style was identical to Aaron's. He focused on the same things and conveyed the same sense of relaxation as Aaron. However, because of the differences in teaching between the US and UK he did tend to look at some things with a more critical eye than Aaron. This was good and I enjoyed it.

But having now taken 2 check rides with two other instructors it is obvious that there are 'pet' items that each instructor looks for.

For example. When doing a pre-engine shut-off, both Aaron and Simon would happily snap the key round to the off position several times to check that the magneto's cut out. One of my other instructors went apoplectic when I did that recently. He was convinced it damaged the engine and tried to stop me doing it.

Last week, for example I was doing a check ride, and as I turned downwind the instructor reminded my to do my landing checks. As I turned downwind! We had barely reached circuit height by then. I politely told him I usually left the checks until later, waited until we had turned base and started the checks. Then - as I dropped the Carb heat lever on - he put his hand over that and said 'Leave that on until we land now. The engine will be fine' Now I understand the issue with carb ice and how the heater is important - especially in cold weather - but I was sure that it is not recommended to leave the carb heater on for too long as it brings warm air directly from the engine bypassing the filter.

Ah well. It's the idiosyncrasies that make instructors different.

(Photo by Flyguy92586. Releases under a creative commons attribution, share-alike license)

Three Most Dangerous Landing Mistakes Pilots Make and How to Avoid Them

By Doug Daniel

Over-shoot, under-shoot, loss of directional control, wing tip strikes ... are all symptoms of mistakes made BEFORE the pilot touches down. Mistakes that are easily to correct - but not necessarily in a way you might think.

I landed at the Nuttree Airport in a Cessna 172 in 1968. I felt pretty smug. It was a very smooth landing, one of those landings that you could hear but not feel. Then a wind gust picked me up and I landed a second time on a parallel taxiway. The pilot taxiing in the opposite direction was kind enough (or perhaps stunned enough or frightened enough) to hold short of a turn-off so I could move over to the parking apron. I couldn't look him in the eye as we went past. Red-faced, I mumbled some excuses to my passengers that I didn't believe. I had just made the three biggest (and most common) mistakes a pilot can make when landing.

Determined to never let that happen again, I spend a great deal of time in the intervening 40 years thinking about how to avoid these mistakes. The NTSB says that a full 45% of the weather-related accidents are caused by crosswinds and gusts. I believe it. It is time to introduce some little known techniques that help prevent these accidents. But first, we should look at their causes.
Landing too fast is caused by flying the approach too fast or trying to force the airplane on the runway before it is ready. The solution is to fly a consistent approach at the same airspeed, picking a safe projected glide point (or PGP), and controlling the PGP until you land. But hold the airplane a foot or so off the runway until the airplane nose has rotated up to the landing attitude. Hold that attitude until the airplane lands. That way you will land at the right speed.

Failing to cross control in a crosswind leads to ground loops, being blown off the side of the runway (the MOST common cause of accidents in the United States), wing tip damage, or, in my case, flying over the infield and landing on a taxiway. To put it simply, cross controlling is using the rudder to keep the long axis of the airplane parallel to the long axis of the runway and using the ailerons to keep the airplane positioned over the runway. This guarantees that you will keep the airplane moving straight down the runway after the wheels touch.
Quit flying the plane before the plane is through flying is one of the most dangerous mistakes that a pilot could make. Its cause is lack of concentration. Its solution is good flying habits.


I was lucky at the Nuttree. If the crosswind had been coming from the opposite side, I could have been blown into a canal. Remember that just because the main gear is on the ground does not mean that there is no 'fly' left in the airplane. Also remember that if you keep the airplane just above the runway until it absolutely, positively will not fly any more, then it will an unusually strong gust to put it in the air again.
It is easy to be lulled into the bad habits that lead to these mistakes. When the wind is gentle and the runway is long, all will be forgiven. So the question is: how to keep these bad habits from developing?

I want to tell you about two exercises that have helped pilots more that I could have ever imagined. They are the 'very slow Dutch roll' and the 'controlled projected glide' point. Neither is difficult or dangerous. Both simplify and strengthen any pilot's ability to land.

The very slow Dutch roll is a simple exercise done at a safe altitude. It teaches two very important skills. First the pilot learns to continuously move the stick and rudders to control the airplane as conditions change, and second, the pilot learns how to cross control the airplane in the most extreme circumstances.
Here is how to do a very slow Dutch roll. Pick a point on the horizon and hold it steady as you change the angle of bank, airspeed and flap configuration. Maintain constant altitude. Change your bank very slowly. Continue to increase the angle of bank until either the aileron or the rudder is pushed to its limit. This is the angle of bank for the maximum crosswind that the airplane can handle. The cross controlled airplane slowly accelerates to the side for a minute or two. During this time, the pilot must move the flight controls continuously as the airplane accelerates to the side - an unanticipated benefit of this exercise.

Let me tell you about the projected glide point or PGP. When you approach the runway your eye will naturally gravitate toward a point on the runway that does not move in your field of vision. The phenomenon is much like when you are on a collision course with another airplane: it stays still in your field of vision but just gets bigger. Well, there is always a point on the ground where exactly the same thing happens. This is the point that you would glide to if you never made that last little flair to land. This is an extremely valuable concept that can save you many hours of landing practice. I never heard another flight instructor talk about it but I am sure that many pilots use this technique.

You can control the PGP with power and drag while keeping the airspeed constant. To move the PGP closer to you, reduce the engine's power or increase the airplanes drag - usually with flaps. To move the PGP away from you, increase the engine's power or decrease the airplane's drag

Use the two concepts together to make consistent, safe landings. Once established on final, use the center line of the runway as your reference point for very slow Dutch rolls. Use the ailerons to position the airplane on the extended centerline, the rudder to keep the long axis of the airplane parallel to that extended centerline. Move the PGP to the same place every time. I recommend the runway threshold. Consciously continue cross controlling until the airplane slows to a taxi.

These two simple techniques will get you to the same place on the runway every time in a landing configuration that compensates for crosswinds or gusts until the airplane is going so slow that you can taxi to parking.

Doug Daniel, respected flight instructor and author, recently wrote Flying Secrets, an extraordinarily popular e-book, operates a website for interacting with fellow pilots. If you want to learn more ways to refine your flying skills and get a *free report* on how even a PC-based flight simulator can help you fly better, ask his experts a question or just get the free report, click here now => http://FlyingSecretsRevealed.com/flying_questions/.

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